Heirs to Merlin Chapter Four: The Town
See Also
- The Ars Magica Reference Document
- The Heirs to Merlin Open Content page
- The Heirs to Merlin product page on this wiki
Chapter 4: The Town
The towns of medieval England are small: London has a population of about 20,000 in 1220, but no other settlement boasts more than 10,000. Most towns are very small, with populations as low as 500, matched by some large villages. The difference is that in a town many, if not most, of the population do not make their living from agriculture, relying instead on crafts or trade. Some towns, of all sizes, also have special legal rights. This section concentrates on larger towns, those with special rights, because if the town has no legal rights, it will be governed as a village. Smaller towns appear similar to villages.
Many towns, especially the older and larger ones, have walls, which are maintained by the citizens. Outside the walls, along the main routes into the town, there are often collections of cottages, which generally house the marginal members of the community, and many of the poorest residents. Both inside and outside the walls, sewage is dumped in cesspits, or open gutters in the streets. Animals are slaughtered over the gutters, the remains often being left where they fall. Piped water supplies are extremely rare, although not completely unknown in the richest houses, and the water source is often the same river into which the gutters flow. Life expectancy for the poor is substantially worse in the town than the country, as those who survive to adulthood can expect to die by their mid thirties, whether from disease or the ever-present danger of fire.
Daily Life
Property
Wealth is as unequally distributed in the towns as in the country. About 5% are rich, with property worth £50 or more. Below them are the majority of the craftsmen and merchants, about 15% with property worth between £2 and £50, and about 30% with property worth less than £2. Next come the servants, petty retailers, and laborers, making up about 40% of the total population. At the bottom are the truly poor — widows, the aged, and cripples — making up about 10% of the population, and totally reliant on charity.
The richest townsfolk live in houses consisting of four ranges, each of two or three stories, set around a courtvard, which could be as much as 100 feet on a side. The use of the courtyard depends on the wishes of the occupant; in some cases it is a garden, in others a working area where goods are loaded and unloaded. The street front is usually divided into shops, some of which are often rented to other traders, and the ranges behind hold living quarters. Such houses are often built of stone and tiled for protection against fire. These houses are only for the richest, particularly if built of stone. There might be half a dozen in the larger towns, and smaller towns might only have one.
Those less well off might have only two parallel ranges, often about fifty feet long. These ranges may be separate, or share a wall, so that the rear wall of the street range is the front wall of the back range. This would depend on available space, and the desires of the builder. The street range contains shops, which are rented out. A typical craftsman might have a three-story house, about fifteen feet by fifty. The ground floor would contain his shop and workshop, with living quarters above. This might well be wooden, and have a thatched roof. A poor craftsman might have a cottage, still with three stories, but only fifteen feet square. A laborer might have a house of similar size, but with only two stories, as he wouldn't need space for a workshop. (Remember that these houses have to accommodate the laborer's whole family about five people.)
Many houses in a town are rented, even the richest on occasion. It is common for a burgess to divide his plot into a number of houses, live in one, and rent the rest out. Even houses built for rent by the poorest townsfolk tend to be well built, so that they will last and provide a good return on the investment.
Most houses are crowded together on the street side, with about fifteen feet of frontage, but have a garden behind the house. This can be used for keeping pigs and poultry, and for growing vegetables, but isn't big enough to support even one person by farming. While most towns seem crowded with houses as you walk around the streets, only about half of the area within the walls is built on in most cases. Further, your wealth does not determine where in town you live. The most palatial courtyard houses are often found next to rows of tiny cottages, especially when the owner of the large house is the landlord for the small ones.
The other possessions of townsfolk are generally similar to those of people who live in the country, except that farming equipment is replaced by whatever they need for their trade. The prices given in this book are so approximate that they may be taken to apply to the town as well, although at any particular time food should be more expensive and crafted goods cheaper in the towns.
The Nightingale
Two knights dwelt in a town, each in a fortified house. These houses were next to each other, separated by a common wall. One knight had a wise and elegant wife, and the other was a young man, renowned for prowess and bravery. The young knight fell in love with the other's wife, and paid court to her for so long that, won over by his persistence and fine qualities, she fell in love with him in return.
The two lovers concealed their love, while taking advantage of their adjoining houses to speak to each other. When she stood at her bedroom window, and he at his, they could see each other, talk, and even throw gifts across the gap. Alas, they could not meet and consummate their love, because the lady's husband remained in the house. Thus, they made their best efforts to seize what they could. Every night, the lady would rise from her bed, and the knight from his, and wrapped in their mantles they would stand at the windows, gazing upon each other for most of the night.
At length, the lady's husband became annoyed that she spent so long from his bed, and asked her why she stood at the window. "Ah," she said, "it is the song of the nightingale. It is so beautiful that I cannot sleep when I could be listening to it." At this, her husband determined to catch the bird, and had his servants set snares all over the garden. Soon, they caught the creature, and the lady's husband held it in his hands.
He went to his wife and said, "See, I have captured the nightingale. Now it will not disturb you, and you can sleep." The lady was grief-stricken at this, and asked her husband for the bird, but he wrung its neck out of spite, and threw the corpse at her, bloodying her breast.
The lady cursed those who had trapped the bird, and mourned that she would no longer be able to go to the window and look at her lover. Lest her lover should think that she no longer cared for him, she wrapped the nightingale in gold-embroidered samite and sent her servant to take it, with a message, to the knight. He was greatly upset, and prepared a casket of gold and precious stones, in which he sealed the body of the nightingale, so that he could carry it with him at all times.
— From Laüstic, a lay of Marie de France
Crafts
The inhabitants of medieval towns engage in dozens of different occupations. About 40% are involved in trade, 40% in manufacture, and 20% in providing services. Levels of wealth cut across these distinctions, with the exception of the very poorest, who have no occupation at all. The richest man in a town can be a butcher as easily as a merchant. Trade will be dealt with in detail in the Travel, Trade, and Industry chapter, and about 5% of the workforce were professionals, who are discussed below.
Crafts are organized the same way in towns as in villages, the difference being that townsfolk do not work on the land, and that a wider range of crafts can be found in a town. The basic unit of production is the family, with the workshop normally part of the home. While the male head of the household is normally the main craftsman, his wife and children also assist. Training is by apprenticeship, which has not been formalized by 1220. The period can be anything from five to fifteen years, and the apprentice is given bed and board by the master for that period. If the apprentice is not the master's child, the master would usually be paid for the training. It is not unusual for craftsmen to take their own children as apprentices, however. In general terms, a craftsman in a larger town is more specialized than one in a smaller. Thus, while a tailor in a small town might turn his hand to any kind of clothing, one in London might specialize in a particular kind of hat.
Women are involved in many crafts, sometimes helping their husbands, but sometimes working in a different craft altogether. Although independent craftswomen are uncommon, they are not unusual, making up maybe 10% of the workforce in an average town. Most of these are widows carrying on their husbands' trades, but some are married and legally recognized as independent traders, meaning that their husbands are not responsible for their debts. Brewing, however, is dominated by women in towns, just as in the country.
The largest single craft area is leather and leather goods, employing about 35% of the craftsmen. Unusually for craftsmen, tanners, who turn hides into leather, normally operate away from home, as the process is notoriously smelly, and needs large quantities of fresh water. Towns often forbid tanners from working within the walls. Shoemakers, saddlers, book binders, and similar occupations make up the rest of this group. Metal work is next in importance, with 20% of the workforce. Blacksmiths, working in iron, form the largest group, but whitesmiths, working in lead and pewter, are also important, as lead is used for roofing and pewter is just beginning to be used for eating utensils. Silver and goldsmiths can also be found in larger towns.
Textile workers make up about 15% of the craftsmen (see page 55 for more on the textile industry). Spinning is often a source of secondary income, but weavers are one of the largest single crafts in many towns, and often the one that gives the civic authorities most cause for concern. They have a greater tendency to form themselves into gilds (see page 37) than most other professions, and can violently demand higher pay. Fullers process the woven cloth, and dyers complete the process. Clothiers, who turn the cloth into consumer goods, make up another 20% of the town's crafters. Their crafts are divided by the kind of clothing they made. The remaining 10% are split among a miscellany of crafts, such as potters, shipbuilders, coopers (barrel-makers), and bowyers.
Of those who provide services, about a third are involved in transport, as sailors or porters, and another third in building. A quarter are professionals, and the remaining 10% are barbers and the like. In addition to these are the casual, unskilled laborers from the lower levels of society, and those members of the criminal classes who provide such "services" as prostitution and robbery. This group might make up a third of the population of a town, and unskilled laborers can easily become criminals if there is no honest work.
A significant number of people work as domestic servants, but they are treated as part of the household in which they work, and so are invisible to the civic authorities. Many of these people are women, and often they get nothing more than their room and board for their work.
House Prices in Town
House Type To build To rent, per year Courtyard house in stone
Two range house, stone£50
£30£2 10s
£1 10sTwo range house, wood £20 £1 Three stories, 15'x50', tiled roof £7 10s 15'x15', for rent £2 2s 6d 15'x15', poor quality £1 N/A
Urban Incomes
The most successful merchants make up to £50 per year from trade. The richest craftsmen make around £5 per year, while an average figure is closer to £3. Laborers are paid as little as a penny a day, less if they receive food on the job.
Professions
In the early thirteenth century a professional class, distinct from both the church and the nobility, is just beginning to emerge. People are trained by serving another professional as an apprentice, and qualify once they can do the job. Most professionals are managers and lawyers. That is, they are responsible for collecting the revenues from someone's estates or businesses, and pursuing matters through the courts if necessary. While there are degrees of specialization, there is no clear class of lawyers yet — the legal representative of a monastery is referred to in one court record of the period as "Groaning and Sighing".
While there are no clear distinctions, there are noticeably different areas of work. Bailiffs are responsible for administering an estate for its lord, and are still sometimes the more trusted peasants of the village, although professionals are becoming more common. The sheriff of a county has his staff of clerks and bailiffs, and the king's court and exchequer also employ a number of literate workers. Legal representation is the final area of professional work, and a tendency to select judges from among those who make their living pleading cases is gathering force around 1220.
The members of professions are not often very rich, and are often accused of extorting money from the poor, or bringing false suits to court for their own advantage. Since, on the whole, they are employed to do someone else's dirty work, whether collecting rents or taking someone to court, it is not surprising that they are not terribly popular.
Law & Governance
Towns are part of the normal administrative structure of medieval England, subject to many of the same laws and authorities. However, certain customs are poorly suited to town life, and the inhabitants want freedom to trade. As a result, some towns have been able to obtain special rights and laws. This never took them outside the feudal structure, however, and the lord of the town, who was often, but not always, the king, can always take its administration back into his hands. Those towns which do have special freedoms paid heavily for them.
Autocrat Hunting
The covenant autocrat dies, and there is no suitable replacement within the covenant. The magi must either recruit someone else, or take time from their studies to manage to covenant themselves. Recruitment is not easy: competent officers are already employed, and would have to be lured away, which might offend their employers. Incompetent officers are easy to find, but bring their own problems. Alternatively, if the covenant has a very effective autocrat, he might be lured away into royal service, possibly even being made sheriff of the covenant's shire, and finding himself with legal authority over the covenant.
Town Charters
Those towns which have gained special rights did so by means of a charter. This is often issued by the king, who charges heavily for the privilege, although lesser lords do issue them, generally in the hope of increasing their revenue by producing a town on their estates. Many charters were issued between 1190 and 1220, as Richard and John both needed money and raised it by selling rights. The details of the charters vary from town to town, but there are six main points.
Burgage Tenure: Land held within a town can be bought or sold without seeking permission from anyone else. Elsewhere, the lord's permission is needed before ownership could be transferred.
Freedom from Toll: All burgesses of a town are allowed to travel throughout a specified region, usually England, but sometimes all the king's domains, which included much of south-western France, without paying any tolls.
Own Court: The town has its own court, and burgesses of the town do not have to answer summons to the local manor or shire courts. Thus, lawsuits against them have to be settled in the town.
Farm of the Town: The town is responsible directly to the king for various taxes. This is "farmed": an amount is fixed, and the town has to pay that much into the exchequer every year. How they go about raising it is, within the law, their own concern, and the sheriff and other royal and seigneurial officers cannot intervene.
Gild Merchant: The town is allowed its own gild; see the next page.
Mayor and Council: The town is allowed to elect a mayor and aldermen, who are responsible for collecting taxes, enforcing the law, and reporting to the king. If they fail in their duties, the king will take the town back under his control. The election is rarely truly democratic, with a few of the richer townsfolk choosing the officers from amongst themselves.
Towns are not always granted all of these freedoms, but many were. If a town does have all of these rights, then any villein who lives in it as a burgess for a year and a day is considered to be free. However, simply sleeping within the walls does not count as residence as a burgess. Renting a property held by burgage tenure often qualifies, but some towns also charge for the freedom of the city. This generally costs a shilling or so initially, and then one or two pence per year to maintain it.
The Gilds
The gilds (spelled with no "u") are central to town life, and were formed spontaneously by the townsfolk. Royal charters either confirm an already existing gild, or, just as often, order that one be disbanded. There are three main types of gild: the gild merchant, the craft gilds, and religious gilds. The first two will be considered below, and religious gilds in the section on the church (see page 82). All of these are local to an area, centered on a single town. For example, the Lincoln weavers' gild could be suppressed without affecting the London weavers' gild, and the two gilds might be in fierce competition. Further, they are not generally exclusive in their membership; a man could belong to as many as he chose, and could afford to pay the dues for. Applicants have to be approved by the gild's officers, and pay an entry fee. This is sometimes set very high, to keep the gild small, but not always. There are also annual dues, which provided the gild with its income.
All gilds have a social function. This results in feasts, some charitable support for members and members' families in difficulty, and funeral arrangements, ensuring that the members are respectably buried and prayed for. Most gilds are open to both men and women, although most are dominated by men.
The gild merchant is often the only gild in a town, and its members usually have a monopoly on buying wholesale and selling within the town. Peasants who wish to sell in town have to either sell to a merchant who is a member of the gild, or become members themselves. It is not unusual for some of the members of a town's gild merchant to live outside the town. If a town does not have a borough charter, it might still have a gild merchant, in which case the officers of the gild would serve as town leaders.
Craft gilds are not common at this point, mainly due to the small size of many towns. As a large town, London has many craft gilds, but in smaller towns there may be only one or two practitioners of a particular craft, making a gild rather pointless. Gilds for the larger crafts, such as weaving, are common elsewhere. Craft gilds have a monopoly on their craft within the town, and set standards of workmanship and employment. They are usually controlled by the employers, and thus fix wages at low levels.
The monopolistic privileges of the gilds only apply within the town, in most cases, and that generally means within the walls. Thus, settlements have grown up just outside the towns where ungilded merchants and craftsmen can practice. This is not popular with the gildsmen, who often tried to drive them away.
The Borough Covenant
A charter of borough rights would give a covenant a secure place in the feudal hierarchy. The magi would inevitably be the mayor and aldermen, and would be placed beyond the normal reach of local mundane justice. Of course, they would have to pay an annual sum to the king, and find the resources to gain the charter in the first place, and convince the tribunal that their actions did not violate the Code. Even after the charter had been gained, the king might demand large sums of money to renew it, on almost any excuse, local magnates might challenge its validity, and if someone appealed to the king against the magi, they would have to defend their rights in the royal courts.
The Gild of St. George
The grogs decide to form their own gild, naming it after a warrior saint. The gild leaders (not necessarily the grog sergeants) set rules for rates of pay, and for who can be employed. At first, this doesn't interfere with the plans of the magi, and the organization becomes established. Then the grogs refuse to accept certain new recruits, or to go on certain expeditions. Maybe the magi want to take grogs away from the covenant during the annual gild feast, and they refuse to go.
The Jews
The Jewish community in England is small, and not of particular importance in European Jewry. The largest Jewish community, in London, has maybe 300 members, and in many places the entire Jewish population consists of a single family. Nevertheless, the Jews have considerable importance within England. They are under the direct protection of the king, and serve as an important source of revenue. This chapter can only give a brief overview of features of Jewish life in England; for more detail on Jewish life in general see Kabbalah: Mythic Judaism.
Due to restrictions on other trades, many Jews make their living by moneylending. When they die, all their goods, including the authority to collect their debts, go to the king. In some cases, this can be an important source of income. In addition, the king can impose arbitrary fines on the Jewish community, demanding that they pay thousands of marks. Since they have no other protection, they have to pay.
Anti-Jewish riots disturb the peace, and the justiciar is eager to restore order in England. Thus, violent action against the Jews is expressly prohibited, and royal officers have particular orders to ensure that the prohibition is enforced. In those towns where there is a large Jewish community, twenty four (Christian) burgesses were selected, who will be held responsible if any violence is committed against the Jews. Thus far, this has worked, and there have been no serious outbreaks of anti-Semitic violence since the death of King John. Indeed, the Jews have been explicitly granted the right to live in Hereford, Worcester, York, Lincoln, Stamford, Gloucester, Bristol, Northampton, and Winchester. The local officials in these places are enjoined not to molest the Jews, nor to allow them to be molested.
There are two royal officers, the Justices of the Jews, with special responsibility for Jewish matters. They are to make copies of all records of loans made by Jews, so that the king will not be deprived of the money if the Jew is murdered and his records burned, as happened in York. These justices are in charge of a separate exchequer, the Exchequer of the Jews, which is responsible for registering these loans, and receiving the goods of Jews who have died. The crown also appoints a Jew as representative of his coreligionists. This person is called the archpresbyter, and the office is currently held by Josce fil' Isaac of London, an important usurer.
There are few professional rabbis in England, as most communities are not large enough to support one. London is the main exception, and at present the community there is taught by Rabbi Menahem, a noted Talmudic scholar whose glosses are received with respect by the continental community.
There are other large Jewish communities in Norwich and Oxford. In Oxford, Rabbi Yom-Tob (also known as Simeon), the author of the Sepher haTenaim ("Book of Conditions") is an important teacher, and wealthy businessman. His son Moses is also a promising scholar and moneylender, and has plans to move to London. In Norwich Rabbi Meir is the leading Talmudist, while Isaac of Norwich is a very wealthy moneylender, currently paying off a fine of 10,000 marks to the king. The community in Lincoln is also important, and is led by Rabbi Joseph (or Josce), while Elias of Lincoln is the most important usurer. Chera Pinche of Winchester is notable for being an independent female usurer.
Pastimes
There are taverns in all towns, often in the basements of other buildings, and many of the entertainments popular in the country are also popular in town. Even London was surrounded by fields, so lack of space for recreation was not a problem. The gilds of a town (see page 37) organize feasts for their members, and sometimes parades or other public displays, although these are still rare in the thirteenth century.
Towns see more professional entertainers than villages do, as they can be sure of a steady audience. Musicians, dancers, acrobats, and actors are known, although none of these professions are respectable. Violent sports, such as cock fighting and bear baiting, are also popular in towns, with all classes of society. The clergy tend to disapprove, but they tend to disapprove of most entertainment.
The Towns
London
London is by far the largest and most important city in England. Its mayor signed Magna Carta, and the citizens have claimed the right to choose the king. However, it is not the capital. The court is wherever the king is, and while some functions, such as the Exchequer, have begun staying in one place, that place is Westminster, some distance to the west of London.
The city stands on the north bank of the Thames, at the lowest point where the river can be bridged. London Bridge is maintained from the endowment of the chapel of Bridge House, and is a little east of the mid-point of the city. London is split almost exactly in half by the river Walbrook, and, very roughly, the east end is commercial, while the west end contains St. Paul's Cathedral and the residences of the nobility.
Berechiah ben Natronai haNakdan
Born 1162
Berechiah is a Jew of Oxford, and makes his main living as a scribe. He is also a noted author, having written a fine collection of fables, the Mishle Shualim or Fox Fables, in his youth and a number of philosophical works. His secret is that he is also a highly skilled natural magician. Very few people know of this, as neither the Christians nor the Jews would approve of his practices.
Berechiah is not a conventionally pious Jew (clearly, as he is a practicing magician), but he does have a firm code of ethics, and a strong sense of duty towards the Jewish community, particularly in England and most particularly in Oxford. He remembers the pogroms of the end of the last century, and is determined that such things will never happen again. To this end he has made friends with many of the scholars at the University, trying to defuse the prejudice against the Jews. While this has made him fairly popular, this popularity has not really extended to the other Jews.
Over recent years he has placed an increasing emphasis on finding magical defenses for the Jews, and on finding ways of making them inconspicuous so that other Jews will accept them. He is aware of the existence of the Order of Hermes, and is considering making contact with it, and possibly even joining it, although he would need to know more about it first. If he feels that the Order could be used to defend the Jews, he will have no hesitation in trying to manipulate it into doing so.
Berechiah is vigorous for his age, but a rather short man. He wears a long beard, and wears the tabula prescribed by the Lateran council for all Jews — he wants people to know that he is a Jew, so that their opinion of him can transfer to the others. He is always polite, and defers to Christians, although he stops short of being fawning.
London is the most famous and glorious city in the world. There are many things for sale every day of the week, not just on Friday and Saturday, the market days, and every Friday there is a great horse fair on the smooth field outside the city to the northwest, attended by earls, barons, and knights. If the crowds of the city become hungry or thirsty, food can always be purchased, ready to eat, from the cookshops by the river.
The city is very pious, keeping all the church festivals and respecting its laws. There are many holy plays, depicting miracles or the torments of martyrs. Many of the great lords, abbots, and bishops of the country have splendid houses in London, where they come and spend their money. The only faults of the city are the immoderate drinking of fools, and the frequency of fires.
Around Easter, mock battles are fought upon the Thames. A shield is fixed on a pole in the middle of the stream, and a young man stands in a boat without oars, which is carried towards the shield by the current. He carries a lance, and tries to strike the shield and break his lance, so that he does not fall. If he succeeds, he is held to have achieved something great, but if the lance does not break, he will fall in the river. However, there are two boats filled with young men by the side of the shield, and they rescue anyone who falls in as quickly as they can.
- William FitzStephen, in the late twelfth century, praising his home city (heavily abridged)
The city is walled in stone, and the old Roman fortifications still form the basis of the defenses. At the east end, by the river, stands the Tower of London, William the Conqueror's great white keep. The west end used to be defended by Montfitchet and Baynard's Castle, but they were demolished a few years ago, after their holders rebelled against King John.
The city is ruled by a mayor, elected every year from among the aldermen of the city. In 1220 Serlo le Mercer holds the post, and thus has all judicial and fiscal authority within the city. There are two sheriffs, who serve as the mayor's officers. The aldermen are each in charge of one of the wards of the city, and there are twenty four of them: twenty three for the wards within the walls, and one for the ward of Portsoken. The wards are generally named after the current alderman. The aldermen are elected for life, and it is not uncommon for a son to follow his father in the post, although it is more usual for this not to happen. The ward of Portsoken is a special case. The prior of Holy Trinity, Aldgate, is ex officio alderman, although he can delegate his authority to a citizen of London. Within his ward, the alderman is the ultimate judicial authority, and insulting him is a serious offense. Below the aldermen come the citizens of London, the group with the right to vote. This is restricted to men, and to only the burgesses, maybe a sixth of the population in total. The citizens of London call themselves the barons of London, and claim equal status with the king's tenants-in-chief.
London has around a hundred and twenty parish churches, most very small, and with very small parishes. Many are dedicated to the same saints, and distinguished either by their location or by the name of one of their rectors. Thus there are churches of St. Michael Queenhithe and St. Michael Wood Street, and churches of St. Mary Mounthaw, St. Mary Somerset, and St. Mary Woolnoth. There are also churches outside the gates, serving travelers and the inhabitants of the suburbs: four of these are dedicated to St. Botolph (at Aldersgate, Bishopsgate, Billingsgate and Aldgate). Many of these churches are controlled by the monastic foundations within or near the city. Because the parishes are small and urban, the churches cannot draw on the normal tithe. Instead, they customarily receive a farthing on every ten shillings' rent for property in the parish, paid every Sunday and on the feast day of every apostle.
The most important monastery is at St. Paul's Cathedral, where the chapter is made up of monks. The bishop of London's status does not match that of his city: the two archbishops and the bishop of Winchester clearly surpass him in importance, although his is still an important bishopric. St. Paul's is also the home of a school, which is particularly renowned for its legal teaching. There are also important schools at St. Mary le Bow and the monastery of St. Martin le Grand. Other monasteries within the city include the priory of Holy Trinity, formerly Holy Cross, and St. Bartholomew's monastery, just outside the walls. The Knights Templar also have a house in the city.
Churches of London
The saints to whom these churches are dedicated are also found elsewhere in the country, and thus may be drawn on for church names. In most places, a church is uniquely identified by its dedication.
All Hallows Barking, All Hallows Staining, All Hallows the Less, St. Dunstan in the East, St. Dunstan in the West, St. Edmund the King, St. Mary le Bow, St. Mary at Hill, St. Mary Woolnoth, St. Alban's, Wood Street, St. Ethelburga at Bishopsgate, St. Mary Magdalene, Milk Street, St. Alphage, St. Andrew by the Wardrobe, St. George, St. Giles at Cripplegate, St. Michael Bassishaw, St. Mildred Poultry, St. Anne and St. Agnes, St. Anthony, St. Helen, Bishopsgate, St. John the Baptist, Walbrook, St. Nicholas (formerly St. Olave), St. Owen, St. Swithin, St. Augustine, St. Bennet Fink, St. John Zachery, St. Katherine Colemanchurch, St. Pancras, St. Peter's Cheap, St. Botolph, Aldersgate, St. Botolph, Aldgate, St. Botolph, Billingsgate, St. Magnus the Martyr, St. Margaret Lothbury, St. Martin, Candlewick Street, St. Peter Cornhill, St. Sepulchre, Newgate, St. Stephen's, Walbrook, St. Botolph, Bishopsgate, St. Clement, St. Martin Vintry, St. Mary Aldermanbury
London's economy is based on trade, and most importantly on the supply of wine to the Royal Household. The wine is imported from Gascony, and all the most important families of the city engage in the trade to some extent. Other important commodities include wool, cloth, and spices (imported by pepperers), but everything traded anywhere in England is also traded in London. There are two main markets in the city: West Cheap and East Cheap. There is no Gild Merchant in London. Instead, there are five mercantile gilds: the drapers (cloth), mercers (also cloth, especially silks), vintners (wine), goldsmiths, and pepperers. There is little conflict between these gilds, as the ruling class divides along family lines, and the drapers and mercers have so far managed to agree on divisions on business.
There are a number of important families in London. One of the most important is the Fitz Ailwins, who supplied the first mayor, Henry Fitz Ailwin, elected in 1192. Its important members at the moment include William, Peter, and Roger Fitz Alan, all of whom are aldermen, and the sons of Alan Fitz Ailwin, Henry's brother. (Note that "Fitz" means "son of" in Norman French.) The Fitz Alulfs include William and Ernulf (married to Dionisia Viel), both aldermen, and Constantine. Constantine is known as something of a hothead and rabble-rouser, despite being respectably middle-aged. He also fervently supported Louis of France at the end of John's reign.
The Viels are represented by John and William Viel, both aldermen and brothers. Dionisia is William's daughter, and his eldest son, also called William, is married to another Dionisia, the daughter of Stephen Eswy. The Eswys are another important family, Stephen and his elder brother Richard both being aldermen. Richard Renger is the alderman of the Bridge ward, a sheriff, and one of the richest merchants in the city. His family has been in the city since the Conquest, but lost influence in the chaos at the end of John's reign. It is said that he is likely to become the next mayor.
The important families, as well as their mercantile interests, hold much land within the city, and gain important income from the rents. They also hold lands in the counties around London, and it is not uncommon for later generations to become knights, holding rural manors by feudal tenure. The main concerns of the city's ruling class are, first, to increase their own wealth and status and, second, to maintain, and if possible improve, the freedoms of the city. The first draft of Magna Carta included a clause giving London special rights, but it was deleted from the final version. The aldermen have not given up yet, though.
Bristol
Bristol became important as a sea port in Saxon time, and its trade has been growing ever since. This has been helped recently by the wool production of the Cotswolds in Gloucestershire. Its current population is around 5000 people, and the city proper is abutted by extensive suburbs to the south, which may be incorporated within the walls in the near future. To the north are a number of religious houses, preventing the expansion of the city in that direction.
The city is very well defended. Excluding the suburbs, it is almost surrounded by the rivers Frome and Avon, and the gap in the east is blocked by the large royal castle. There are also city walls, surrounding the city proper, which are pierced by a number of gates. Many of these gates contain parish churches. The town is built on a hill, so many of the streets are quite steep.
The High Cross, which stands at the junction of the four main roads, marks the civic center of the city. Bristol is governed by a mayor, having obtained a borough charter in the last few years. Trade with Ireland is the mainstay of the city's prosperity, although Bristol merchants do sail to other parts of Europe.
Cambridge
Cambridge is a medium sized town, on the edge of the East Anglian Fens. The river Cam is navigable all the way to the sea, and forms an important trade route through the marshes. As a result, Cambridge is a port town. The river is bridged just below some higher ground, on which the castle stands. The town is unwalled, but is surrounded by a ditch, called the King's Ditch.
It was granted a borough charter by King John in 1207, and there are two local fairs. Midsummer Fair, from 22 to 25 June, is controlled by the Augustinian canons at Barnwell, and Stourbridge Fair, from 24 to 31 August, by the leper hospital of St. Mary Magdalene, also at Barnwell. The other important religious houses in the town are the Benedictine nunnery of St. Radegund and the hospital of St. John.
The most important mundane feature of the town is its university. This has only been in existence since 1209, but since it was formed by masters fleeing Oxford (see page 48) it is already fairly well organized. It has a hundred or so students, and a couple of dozen masters, but it is now growing again after a brief decline when Oxford re-opened. The university has a chancellor, and negotiates with the townsfolk as a body, but it is not much more organized than Oxford.
A notable feature of the university is its relatively high number of natural magicians — there are at least three resident. This is due, in large part, to the influence of Schola Pythagoranis, a Hermetic covenant which is sited on the edge of the town. All residents of the town know of this organization, although very few realize that it is a gathering of magi.
Canterbury
Canterbury is the seat of the most senior churchman in England and Wales, and the site of the martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket. It was the site of the monastery founded by St. Augustine when he came to convert the Saxons, and the church is the dominant force in the town. The town was founded by the Romans, and its current walls are built on the remains of the Roman circuit, although its population of 6,000 has spilled beyond them into suburbs. There are six gates into the town: Westgate, Northgate, Burgate, Newingate, Ridingate, and Worthgate.
Civic government is in the hands of six aldermen and several portreeves, as the town does not have a mayor. Each alderman is in charge of a ward, which are named after, and based around, the gates to the city. The aldermen hold civic courts, while the portreeves hold the boroughmoot and answer for taxes to the king. The boroughmoot can act as a court of law or as an electing body; the portreeves and the aldermen are elected by it every year, although the king's agents have a great deal of influence. It customarily meets on Tuesdays. There is a gild merchant, which holds some land in the town, and all the aldermen are members of it.
There are three important religious houses in or around the town. The most important is Christ Church, the cathedral priory and seat of the archbishop. The cathedral was largely destroyed in a fire in 1174, but has been rebuilt more splendidly than before. A new shrine for the remains of St. Thomas has almost been completed, and plans are being made for the translation of his relics. Christ Church follows the Benedictine rule (see page 61).
St. Augustine's Abbey is also Benedictine, and older than Christ Church. This is the abbey founded by St. Augustine on his arrival in England, and it holds his relics. It is a notable seat of learning, although somewhat in decline, and has an ongoing rivalry with the cathedral. St. Gregory's Priory is a house of Augustinian canons, and was founded by Archbishop Lanfranc shortly after the Norman Conquest. He also founded St. John's Hospital, which provides for thirty old men and thirty old women.
In the southwest of the city stands a royal castle, from which the king can maintain his authority. It has a stone keep and walls, and is the main base of the sheriff of Kent. Canterbury contains another royal office: the second largest mint in the kingdom, producing perhaps half as many coins as London. The moneyer is now based some distance from the cathedral, as sparks from his furnace were blamed for the cathedral fire. In addition to all the trades that would be expected in an important center, the town also has an unusual number of goldsmiths, due to the demand from the religious houses.
Chester
Chester was founded by the Romans, as one of their legionary fortresses, and is now the capital of the palatine county of Cheshire. This means that the king has very little influence here: for almost all purposes, the earl of Chester is the highest authority. The city is quite small, with a population of around 2000. For daily purposes, the town is run by a mayor and corporation. The mayor is a new institution, introduced to replace the old governance by two sheriffs when the earl left on Crusade. There is a gild merchant, which holds the usual monopoly on trade.
The city is surrounded by walls, which for much of their length are built on the old Roman fortifications. The East, North, and Bridgegates are marked by towers and turrets, while the others are just arches piercing the walls. In the southwest corner of the city stands the castle, the headquarters of the earldom. The inner bailey and tower are built of stone, and have just been provided with a new gate. The old one has been blocked up, but its tower still contains the castle chapel. The outer bailey is defended by a ditch and wooden wall.
Chester has eight parish churches, of which by far the largest and most important is St. John's, which is just outside the city walls. Indeed, this church was the seat of a bishopric for a short time in the late eleventh century. There are also a few religious houses. The most important is the Benedictine abbey of St. Werburg, which is also the parish church of St. Oswald. It was founded in 1092 by the earl, and owns the whole northeastern quarter of the city. There is also a small Benedictine nunnery, founded around 1150. Finally, the hospital of Little St. John was founded in 1190 just outside the Northgate, and houses thirteen poor inmates.
Chester is a port city, although it has lost out to Bristol (see page 42) in the competition for western trade, partly because the river Dee silts up very quickly and a lot of effort is required to keep it navigable. The leather trade is particularly important within the city, partly because Cheshire is excellent for raising cattle, if not for growing crops.
Just across the river to the south of the city, near the road and to the right as you are leaving the city, a shrine of the pagan goddess Minerva, consisting of an image in high relief, is carved into the rock. Despite its prominence, it has survived largely unmolested, and continues to watch over the city.
St. Werburg and the Geese
A large flock of wild geese were feeding on St. Werburg's wheat, destroying the harvest. She called her servants, and had the birds confined in a shed, as if they were domestic animals. The next morning she went to let them out, and noticed that one of them was missing. She asked the servants what had happened, and they told her that they had eaten it.
"Bring me," she said, "the feathers and bones of the bird that was eaten." The remains were brought to her, and the saint took them, and commanded that they should be whole and live again. And it was done. St. Werburg turned to the geese, who were cheering at the return of their lost companion, that their kind were forbidden to enter that field, for all eternity. The geese departed safely, but the saint's command is still observed, so that no geese enter that field to this day.
— From Henry of Huntingdon's Historia Anglorum.
Durham
Durham is the site of the cathedral of St. Cuthbert, and the town grew up around the religious community. St. Cuthbert was bishop of Lindisfarne in the late seventh century, and the bishopric remained on the island until 875, when increasing Viking raids drove the monks away. They moved first to Chester-le-Street, where they stayed until further raids forced them to move again in 995. Cuthbert's coffin, which had been faithfully carried with them through their wanderings, was on a cart, and when it reached Durham it stopped, and refused to move. No matter how hard the monks pushed, it would not go further, so they decided to heed the saint and found a new monastery there.
Cuthbert had chosen wisely, as Durham is a high hill, surrounded on three sides by the river Wear. It is only vulnerable on one side, and that a narrow neck, so it was easy to build quick defenses. The cathedral is an important center of pilgrimage in the north of England, and this, combined with its defensibility, made it a center of resistance to the Normans. William's first two earls of Northumbria were murdered, and the third rebelled. The conqueror sent an army north under Robert Cumin, which took Durham for one night before the English overran it, killing Cumin by burning his house down around him. The bishop, Walcher, was murdered in 1080, provoking the harrying of the north, which finally created a desolation and called it peace.
The palatinate had its origin in the reign of St. Calais, bishop from 1080 to 1096. He concluded a pact with the earl of Northumbria which gave him great powers over County Durham, which were later confirmed by the king.
The main buildings in Durham are the castle and the cathedral. The great Norman cathedral dominates the view and the life of the city, housing the shrine of St. Cuthbert. The castle guards the neck of the peninsula, and is the main residence of the bishops of Durham. The hill is almost entirely devoted to the priory and bishop, and the civic buildings are all on the plain, across the river. The town is divided into four boroughs and a barony. Three boroughs are controlled by the priory and one, Bishop's Borough, by the bishop. None of them have a mayor or any other form of self-government, although there are separate borough courts, and Bishop's Borough is the only one with a market. The barony of Elvet predates the arrival of the monks, but is now thoroughly under their control. Only the peninsula is walled, so most of the buildings would count as suburbs in many towns.
Miracles of St. Cuthbert
Eleven years after his death, the most faithful men of the whole congregation decided to raise the relics of the holy Bishop Cuthbert from their sepulcher. When they first opened it they found, marvelous to tell, that the body was as undecayed as it had been when they first buried it. The skin had not decayed, nor had the sinews become stiff, and his limbs could still be bent at the joints. His vestments and footwear were not worn away where they had touched the body, and all retained their fresh color. The shoes with which the bishop was shod are kept against the relics, as testimony to this.
A paralytic boy was brought to our monastery from another, and our skilled physicians labored to cure him, but to no avail. When the boy saw that they had given up, he burst into tears and said,
"This powerlessness began from my feet and spread through all my members. So I ask the abbot for the shoes which were on the feet of the holy and incorruptible martyr of God." The shoes were brought and placed on his feet, and he slept that night wearing them. The next morning he was able to stand and praise the Lord, and go round the tombs of the martyrs.
— From the Anonymous Life of St. Cuthbert
Exeter
Exeter is the seat of a bishop, and by far the most important town in the southwest of England. It is a sea-port, as the river Exe is navigable as far as the city. The town was founded by the Romans, and is still bounded by the Roman walls. It is dominated by the Norman cathedral and castle, both built of stone. The castle is usually controlled by the sheriff of Devon, on behalf of the king, and the bishop jealously guards his rights in the cathedral, which is dedicated to St. Peter.
The city is governed by a mayor, currently William Derling, whose authority ends at the city walls. The land between the wall and the river used to be a marsh, but has been drained and the leats, or drainage ditches, are used to power mills, turning this into the main industrial area of the city. However, it falls under the authority of the earls of Devon, not of the city. As the docks are also in this area, this weakens the hand of the civic authorities in any negotiations with the earl. The river is crossed by a large stone bridge, which is not yet complete. A chapel dedicated to St. Edmund has been completed at the center, as have a number of the arches to either side, but large gaps are still bridged with wood. Many people have contributed to the bridge, but most of the cost has been borne by the Gervase family, important Exeter merchants.
Exeter contains 18 churches (including St. Mary Minor, St. Mary Major, St. Petrock, St. Kerryan, and St. Pancras), but no parishes. Ecclesiastically, the town is a single parish, and most of the clergy live together in Preston Street. This situation is generally regarded as unsatisfactory, and discussions over the drawing of parish boundaries are underway, complete with bitter disagreements over apparently minor points.
Exeter's main source of income is trade, particularly the wine trade with Gascony. It is also an important center of the cloth industry, and, as a regional center, almost all trades are practiced to some extent. Water is supplied to the town from a spring to the northwest. It flows along a conduit at first, but then through large underground passages, which take it under the cathedral close, where it is tapped. Waste is removed from the city largely by the stream to the southeast, which is called Shitbrook in consequence.
Lincoln
Lincoln is an important town under normal circumstances, as the seat of one of the most powerful English bishops. In 1220 it is of great political importance, but the battle of Lincoln in 1217 has left it in a poor material state.
Lincoln was founded by the Romans, and the city proper is still surrounded by the Roman walls. This area is to the north of the river Witham, climbing the steep slope of the Lincolnshire scarp. To the south of the river there is a large suburb, which is unwalled. The walled area is divided into two main sections, which are separated by a wall. On the flat ground at the top of the scarp is the Bail, which includes the castle and minster, while the area on the slope is simply the city.
The castle, which is built of stone, is designed to be defensible against the city, and has access both to the city and to the open country. It has a curtain wall and two keeps, both on artificial mounds. The older tower, built in the early days of the Norman Conquest, is in the southern part of the castle, while in the western part is a large shell keep, built in the twelfth century and called Lucy's Tower. The shell keep has a fifteen-sided stone outer wall, eight feet thick, with wooden buildings built against its inner surface to provide accommodation. The castle is currently held by Nicola de Hay (see insert, page 49).
The minster, the bishop's church, is currently being rebuilt. The old nave is still in use, but the new choir and transepts have been completed, along with a central tower. Some of the masons are rather worried about the tower, claiming that they weren't given enough time to erect it. The rebuilding was started by Bishop Hugh (not the current bishop) in 1192, and extends beyond the Roman wall of the city, which was pulled down in this section. The Hugh who began the rebuilding is currently being considered for canonization by the Pope. The area around the minster, where the clergy live, is the Close, and falls under the authority of the church rather than the town.
The town has a gild merchant, but no other gilds, and the alderman of the gild is a separate post from the mayor of the town. Indeed at present the posts are held by different people: John de Holm is the alderman, while Peter Bridge is the mayor. The mayor is also the king's bailiff in the town, responsible for the collection of revenue and enforcement of justice. To assist him, he has four coroners and four bedells, who act as general civic officials.
At the battle of Lincoln in 1217, the castle was on the king's side, while the town was on the rebels' side. The royal forces won the battle, and, as they were instructed to treat the town as excommunicated, robbed the churches as well as the secular buildings. Many women took their children and goods onto small boats on the river in an attempt to escape, but these boats were overloaded and capsized, killing their occupants.
After the restoration of King Henry, the town did not see peace, as it was now the scene of struggles between Nicola de Hay and the earl of Salisbury. At present, Nicola controls the castle and has a royal writ making her the sheriff of the county, but William Longespee is still sheriff. He is also trying every means at his disposal to take control of the castle, and there is a danger of a private war breaking out.
Nicola de Hay
Nicola is the hereditary constable of Lincoln castle, and sheriff of the shire. Her father had no sons, and as his eldest daughter she inherited the English portion of his lands and authority. She married Gerard de Camville, who died early in the thirteenth century, and had one son. This son, Richard, had a single daughter, Idonea, who married William Longespee, the current earl of Salisbury and uncle of the king. Both Richard and Gerard were dead by 1217, and William would then inherit Lincoln in right of his wife, once Nicola was dead.
Nicola has no intention of dying, or of surrendering her position while she lives and is capable of maintaining it. She offered to surrender the position to King John in 1216, on the grounds that she was an old woman, but he asked her to retain the position until he ordered otherwise. Having successfully held the castle against Louis's besiegers for many months, she has great confidence in her ability to retain it now.
William, on the other hand, has no intention of waiting for her to finally die, and is using his greater secular power in an attempt to take the position from her.
Nicola has pursued the conflict with the earl through the courts, where she has won a regrant of her position, and by alliance with Falkes de Bréauté, who is providing military support. She would be willing to ally with anyone else willing to support her, and thus the king, and is not too bothered about the details of the type of support.
Nicola is an old woman, in her early sixties, but she has not been bowed down too heavily by her years. Her hair is white and her face is lined, but she is still energetic and in full command of her faculties. She is used to giving orders, and to being obeyed without question, and most of her followers have a great deal of respect for her. After all, she brought them, successfully, through a siege. She dresses as befits her rank, in fine clothes, and is never without servants or, in the current climate, guards.
Oxford
Oxford is a fairly important town, sitting on an important crossing point of the Thames. It hosts a royal residence, and occasional council meetings, but most importantly it is once again the home of a university.
The town is walled and guarded by a castle at its west end. There are two important monastic houses: St. Frideswide's Priory and Oseney Abbey, both of which are home to Augustinian canons (see page 63). There is also a collegiate church of secular clergy centered on the chapel of St. George in the castle.
The most important feature of the town is the university, which consists of several hundred students and several dozen masters. The university was not founded; instead, it arose from the scholars in the town, and from lawyers attending the courts of the bishop of Lincoln, some of which were held in the town. By the early years of the thirteenth century it was somewhat organized, with one master taking the title of magister scholarum ("master of schools").
In 1209, however, things changed. A student killed his mistress in an argument, and fled the town. The civic authorities descended on his lodgings, seized two other students who were living there, and hanged them on the spot. This violated the masters' claim to jurisdiction over their students, and they therefore suspended lectures in the town. The masters scattered, some going to Paris, others to London, and others, in part attracted by an invitation from Schola Pythagoranis, to Cambridge.
It was five years before the matter was resolved. The masters were all clerks, and sought the church's judgment, but England was under the interdict, and so that was not available. In 1214, Cardinal Nicholas, the papal legate, imposed a settlement. The university won: the town was to grant the masters jurisdiction over their students, provide 52s per year for the maintenance of poor scholars, and feed 100 of them on 6 December, the anniversary of the hanging that caused the trouble. A chancellor, appointed by the bishop of Lincoln, was established to administer the agreement.
The university is now active again, and the masters take action as a corporate body, with the chancellor, Geoffrey de Lucy, generally accepted as their head. Lectures are available on the Artes Liberales, civil and canon law, theology, and medicine. However, the university is not very organized. It owns no property, meeting and storing its records in the church of St. Mary the Virgin. There is no fixed syllabus for any subject, and students need not register — they merely turn up to the town and attend the lectures given by the masters. This situation is likely to change, as discipline is becoming increasingly hard to enforce.
St. Hugh's Swan
On the very day of Hugh's enthronement as bishop of Lincoln a great swan came to his manor at Stow. This bird was as much larger than a swan as a swan is larger than a goose, and had a yellow head, otherwise appearing pure white as other swans. Within a few days it had fought and killed all the other swans there, apart from one female, which it spared for company, not for breeding purposes.
When the bishop first came to Stow, this royal bird immediately became completely tame. It was brought to the bishop, and it let him feed it, apparently losing all its wildness for a time. It did not flee from the bishop, and even seemed indifferent to the crowds of people that gathered. When St. Hugh fed it, it would thrust its neck up his sleeve and rest its head there for a while, hissing gently as if it were talking to its master.
Whenever the bishop returned to the manor, the swan would display great excitement for three or four days in advance, flying about its pond and going to the hall and the gate, as if going to meet its master. Sometimes, when no one else knew the bishop was coming, they would see the swan become excited, and know from this that he would be there soon. When he did arrive, even if after an absence of two years, the swan would greet him with great signs of joy, showing that it had pined for him.
Curiously, the swan would let no other man or beast approach the bishop while it was there, hissing violently and attacking those who approached. Its attacks were particularly vigorous when the bishop was resting, and since it made a great noise people would take another route, rather than disturb the saint. While the bishop was away, the swan would take its food from one of the servants of the manor, but when he was present that servant would be driven away just as violently as any stranger.
When the bishop visited Stow for the last time before he died, the swan refused to come to him, instead remaining on its pond, hiding among the reeds and appearing very depressed. At length, it was brought before the bishop, but its head still hung in grief, and it would not be comforted. When the bishop died, people realized that the swan had been saying its final farewell.
— From Adam of Eynsham's Life of St. Hugh
Winchester
Winchester has declined from its past glories, but is still a very important city with a population of around 8000. It was founded by the Romans, and from the time of Alfred the Great it was the capital of England. It housed an important mint, the abbeys were great centers of art and learning, and there was a great amount of trade. The decline began during the civil war, when Henry of Blois, the bishop of Winchester, was a major player. The city was sacked and burned in 1141, and after the war, London began to take on the functions of the capital.
The development of civic independence has been greatly hindered by the proximity of royal and episcopal interests. The city does have a mayor, currently Elias Westman, and a gild merchant, but there are many exemptions from their authority. They have no control over the king's moneyers or officers, nor over the land of the Bishop's Soke, which covers a large portion of the city. There are two other small liberties (areas where the mayor has no authority), Chapman's Hall and God-begot, which are of more obscure origin. God-begot is controlled by the cathedral priory, not the bishop, but Chapman's Hall is independent.
The city is walled, and has two castles. One is the royal castle and the other, Wolvesey Castle, belongs to the bishop of Winchester. Both have been rebuilt in stone since their foundation. The river Itchen flows through the town, and there are many streets in the eastern part that have open streams flowing through them, so that some blocks of houses are effectively islands.
As might be expected, there is a heavy ecclesiastical presence. There are many parish churches, including three set over the gates of the city. The churches over Eastgate and Northgate are dedicated to St. Mary, while that over Kingsgate is dedicated to St. Swithun. There are three Benedictine houses. Oldminster is the cathedral priory, and is dedicated to St. Swithun, St. Peter, St. Paul, and the Holy Trinity. Newminster, or Hyde Abbey, is outside the city to the north and used to house relics of a number of English monarchs, including Canute and William Rufus, but it was burned in 1141. St. Mary's Abbey is a nunnery within the city, near Oldminster. These houses were all founded in Saxon times, the latter two by King Alfred. There are also a number of hospitals, the most important of which is the hospital of St. John, which was founded in the early tenth century. It is a very rich foundation, and is also used as a meeting hall by the mayor and city corporation.
The church forms a major element of the town's economy, but it also engages in general trade. Much of its international trade passes through Southampton, and there is an ongoing rivalry between the two places. Many goods are transported by road, although the Itchen is used to bring some materials, particularly building stone. Wool dominates the city's industry, with weaving, fulling, and dyeing being important businesses. Trade is centered around St. Giles's Fair, which is controlled by the bishop, and draws traders from much of western Europe.
The town's Jews are unusually well integrated into the community. They suffered very little in the nationwide pogroms of 1190, and some Christian merchants are even in favor of admitting those of them who qualify to the gild merchant. They engage in businesses other than money-lending, but Chera Pinche and her husband Isaac are the richest Jews, and they are usurers.
York
York is the largest town of the north of England in 1220, with a population of around 8000. It is a port, as the River Ouse is navigable, and indeed tidal, as far as the city, and also the seat of the second English archbishop. The walls of the town are of wood on an earth embankment, with only the gates built in stone. There is a long gap around the King's Fishpond, because the water is itself sufficient barrier. The king's castle, on the east bank of the Ouse and surrounded by the dammed Fosse, is also of wood, although there is talk of rebuilding it in stone.
There are a handful of stone houses in the town, owned by the richer merchants, and the churches and religious houses are of stone. The largest church in the town is the minster, the cathedral church of the archbishop. Work has just started on rebuilding its transepts. The cathedral chapter is made up of secular canons, rather than of monks. St. Mary's Abbey is a Benedictine monastery, founded in 1080, and is one of the largest in the north. The abbot in 1220 is Robert of Longchamp, brother of King Richard's reviled chancellor. The Cistercian house of Fountains Abbey (see page 83) was founded by monks of St. Mary's who were dissatisfied with the laxity of its life. Holy Trinity Priory is also Benedictine, and is controlled by the abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours in France. Just within the town walls, between the Minster and St. Mary's, is St. Leonard's Hospital, which used to be St. Peter's and is still often referred to as such. The hospital is under the control of the Chapter of the Minster. St. Nicholas's Hospital is specifically for the treatment of lepers. The Benedictine nunnery of St. Clement was established in 1130, and in 1202 the Gilbertines founded St. Andrew's Priory to provide them with priests. The city has over thirty parish churches.
York has had all the privileges of a borough since 1212, but its authority is limited by several liberties within its walls. The Minster is under the authority of the archbishop, as is part of the town adjoining it, and St. Mary's Abbey has its own court, which also covers the adjacent houses. There is a mayor, and bailiffs, but no gild merchant: this disappeared during the late twelfth century, as civic authorities and craft gilds took over its functions. There are numerous craft gilds in York. The most important are the weavers (who are also the oldest, receiving a royal charter in 1163), the glovers, saddlers, skinners, hosiers, butchers, drapers, and vintners. The Butchers' Gild is responsible for guarding the city jail at night. The main fair is the Archbishop's Fair, held between 31 July and 2 August.
The most important recent event was the massacre of the Jews of York in 1190. After Richard's coronation anti-Jewish riots broke out, and the Jews, who were under the king's protection, fled to the castle to avoid a mob led by a fanatical monk and those who owed the Jews money. Trapped in the castle, with the royal sheriff refusing to act, the Jews all committed suicide or were slaughtered by the mob. Afterwards the sheriff was deprived of office, and many citizens of the town fined for their parts in the riot. Jews returned to the city soon afterwards, and there is a Jewish community in 1220.
Next I visited the city founded by Ebrauk, with its cathedral minster of St. Peter. It has often been emptied, and then repopulated, and its walls have often been destroyed. But now, it enjoys peace, and might be truly happy, were its ruler not so greedy.
– Alexander Neckam, c. 1210
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